Conspiracy theories are beliefs that allege secret, powerful groups control the world, mislead the public and/or are behind significant events. Some conspiracy theories claim famous people who died, like Elvis and Tupac, are still alive; others that events, such as the moon landing and the sinking of the Titanic, were faked; and others that the world is not as we know it: the earth is flat and global warming is a hoax. At the more offensive end, some theories fuel hatred and distrust towards certain groups in society, notably Jews and Muslims, scapegoating them for problems. There are theories, for example, that allege Jews and Muslims are behind global issues, such as COVID-19,
and are intentionally trying to wipe out the white populations of Western countries.
Research has shown that large numbers of people believe in some kind of conspiracy theory.
Part of this is because human brains have evolved to be able to see patterns: recognising patterns, such as which plants to eat, how to hunt prey and how to identify threats, is necessary for learning, decision making and survival.
Stories are a form of pattern.
They have narrative structures (beginning, middle and end), recognisable characters (like villains and heroes), and demonstrate cause and effect (why something happens and what the outcome is). When we recognise patterns, our brain releases dopamine, a feel-good hormone, to facilitate the learning process and help us to remember information.
However, this dopamine reward can mean that humans see patterns where none exist and try to attach meaning to coincidences.
Research also suggests that people believe in conspiracy theories to satisfy psychological needs. They need to understand the world; to feel safe and in control; to have a sense of belonging; and to feel like they are superior (the sense of knowing something others don’t can increase people’s self-esteem).
Conspiracy theories gain prominence during times of crisis, highlighting how people seek them out when concerned to feel a sense of control (although evidence suggests that consuming conspiracy theories actually makes people feel more uncertain and less powerful, so it has the opposite of the intended effect).
Belief in one theory can lead to belief in others as conspiracy theories tend to have a common structure: they feature an ‘other’, a victim, a powerful group that is behind the conspiracy, a hidden agenda, and cover-up. This makes it easier for people to believe more than one conspiracy as this structure can shape how they view the world.
Social media platforms, such as YouTube and TikTok, also push conspiracy theory content in a bid to maximise user watch time and keep users online for as long as possible to make more money.
Public figures who promote conspiracy theories can also make money on these platforms (and others), and by selling merchandise, books and speaking at events.
This means people and companies have an economic incentive for encouraging people to create and engage with content about conspiracy theories. Once people engage with one conspiracy theory online, it increases their chances of encountering others due to the way algorithms work and of diving further down the ‘rabbit hole’.
It can be difficult for people to stop believing in conspiracy theories once they have taken root. Confirmation bias, which leads people to seek out information that aligns with their beliefs and reject information that does not, can prevent people from questioning theories and accepting evidence that disproves them.
Believers often claim that any evidence is proof of the conspiracy theory. Moreover, echo chambers (and the way algorithms work) on social media make it more difficult for people to be exposed to information that challenges their views.
Conspiracy theories also impact people on an emotional level: they are stories people turn to when they feel anger and distress, and the fact they contain clear villains and revolve around seeming injustice can create a sense of outrage that means people do not engage with their content critically and rationally. They can also counteract a sense of loneliness as people become part of a community of believers, connecting with others. These emotional factors can make it hard for people to stop believing in them.
While some conspiracy theories appear harmless, the underlying sense that the world is controlled by a secret group is harmful as it can create distrust in public institutions and make people turn away from the democratic process: people who believe in conspiracy theories are less likely to vote.
Such beliefs can therefore stop people from engaging in society and resolving societal problems.
Conspiracy theories have also been shown to fuel prejudice against minority groups in general, not just those named by a conspiracy theory,
and can push people towards violence, crime and extremism.
Moreover, such theories can make the targets of conspiracy theories feel threatened and anxious, and less able to interact with those from outside their group, so they subsequently withdraw into their community.
This reduces the chance of people mixing with, understanding and empathising with those from different social groups. Conspiracy theories therefore divide society in multiple ways.
It is also important to have empathy for those who have been sucked down a ‘rabbit hole’ of conspiracy theories, and to understand that they are probably invested emotionally in what they believe. It is worth listening to believers, and asking them questions about their beliefs to build understanding, rather than suggesting they are foolish.
It can also help to look for common ground, suggest looking at evidence together and help them think about what they can control.
Conspiracy theories are also central to the beliefs of all extremist movements in existence today.
Conspiracy theories can serve as a recruitment tool for extremism, functioning as a form of propaganda, and exploiting people’s sense of injustice and any confusion they might have about the world. Conspiracy theories can be used by extremists to attack people seen as belonging to out-groups, to suggest in-groups are victims, to discredit democratic and reasonable ways of challenging power and to encourage acts of violence.
The changing information landscape has made it easier to find and disseminate conspiracy theories and extremist content, and for people to be radicalised online. Understanding what leads people to extremism is therefore important.
The UK government has identified push and pull factors that lead people towards extremism and radicalisation.
Push factors include isolation, a lack of a sense of belonging and/or purpose, and having real or perceived grievances. Pull factors used by extremist groups to gain new recruits include the offer of a sense of community, making people feel special and encouraging ideas of supremacy.
Extremist movements can offer people answers and a sense of belonging. When people join them, they become part of a social community, which is evolutionarily important for humans: working with others and fitting in was necessary for survival. These communities tend to operate online, in chat rooms, on message boards and on social media platforms – the Internet has been shown to facilitate violent extremism.
These online networks then help people meet with those who share similar views in-person.
Once people form friendships and relationships, their extremist and conspiratorial beliefs tend to become more fixed and a core part of their identity. This can make it very difficult to challenge their beliefs because doing so can threaten their sense of self and their place in the social group.
This social aspect also leads people to commit harm to prove their place within extremist communities, leading to copy-cat acts of violence, and is a reason why some terrorists now live-stream their murder rampages and/or write manifestos that they share online.
Leaving an extremist group can also be very difficult as people fear being attacked by the community they leave behind and of not being accepted in wider society because of having held extremist ideas.
How to respond to extremism and extremists is an important and debated issue. Some people advocate for tougher policing, sentencing and surveillance, although there are issues about how such punitive approaches impact people’s civil liberties and freedom of expression.
Others advocate for empathetic approaches that seek dialogue with those drawn to extremism and the offer of support to help them step back from hate.
The organisation Life After Hate, for example, seeks to connect former members of the far-right and white supremacists to those who remain within extremist groups to help them extract themselves and see that there is an alternative.
Helping people understand what risk factors draw people towards extremism is an important first step.